IELTS- Psychology of Innovation

 

IELTS Reading Passage-3:

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1- 14, which are based on Reading Passage below.

       The psychology of innovation

Why are so few companies truly innovative?

Innovation is key to business survival, and companies put substantial resources into inspiring employees to develop new ideas. There are, nevertheless, people working in luxurious, state-of-the-art centres designed to stimulate innovation who find that their environment doesn't make them feel at all creative. And there are those who don't have a budget, or much space, but who innovate successfully.

For Robert B. Cialdini, Professor of Psychology at Arizona State University, one reason that companies don't succeed as often as they should is that innovation starts with recruitment. Research shows that the fit between an employee's values and a company's values makes a difference to what contribution they make and whether, two years after they join, they're still at the company. Studies at Harvard Business School show that, although some individuals may be more creative than others, almost every individual can be creative in the right circumstances.

One of the most famous photographs in the story of rock'n'roll emphasises Cialdini's views. The 1956 picture of singers Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Johnny Cash and Jerry Lee Lewis jamming at a piano in Sun Studios in Memphis tells a hidden story. Sun's million-dollar quartet' could have been a quintet. Missing from the picture is Roy Orbison, a greater natural singer than Lewis, Perkins or Cash. Sam Philips, who owned Sun, wanted to revolutionise popular music with songs that fused black and white music, and country and blues. Presley, Cash, Perkins and Lewis instinctively understood Philips's ambition and believed in it. Orbison wasn't inspired by the goal, and only ever achieved one hit with the Sun label.

The value fit matters, says Cialdini, because innovation is, in part, a process of change, and under that pressure we, as a species, behave differently, 'When things change, we are hard-wired to play it safe.' Managers should therefore adopt an approach that appears counter-intuitive - they should explain what stands to be lost if the company fails to seize a particular opportunity. Studies show that we invariably take more gambles when threatened with a loss than when offered a reward.

Managing innovation is a delicate art. It's easy for a company to be pulled in conflicting directions as the marketing, product development, and finance departments each get different feedback from different sets of people. And without a system which ensures collaborative exchanges within the company, it's also easy for small 'pockets of innovation' to disappear. Innovation is a contact sport. You can't brief people just by saying, 'we're going in this direction and I'm going to take you with me.'

Cialdini believes that this 'follow-the leader syndrome' is dangerous. not least because it encourages to go it alone. 'It's been scientifically proven that three people will be better than one at solving problems, even if that one person is the smartest person in the field.' To prove his point, Cialdini cites an interview with molecular biologist James Watson. Watson, together with Francis Crick, discovered the structure of DNA, the genetic information carrier of all living organisms. 'When asked how they had cracked the code ahead of an array of highly accomplished rival investigators, he said something that stunned me. He said he and Crick had succeeded because they were aware that they weren't the most intelligent of the scientists pursing the answer. The smartest scientist was called Rosalind Franklin who, Watson said, "was so intelligent she rarely sought advice".

Teamwork taps into one of the basic drivers of human behaviour. "The principle of social proof is so pervasive that we don't even recognise it, ' says Cialdini. If your project is being resisted, for example, by a group of veteran employees, ask another old-timer to speak up for it. ' Cialdini is not alone in advocating this strategy. Research shows that peer power, used horizontally not vertically, is much more powerful than any boss's speech. 

Writing, visualising and prototyping can stimulate the flow of new ideas. Cialdini cites scores of research papers and historical events that prove that even something as simple as writing deepens every individual's engagement in the project. It is, he says, the reason why all those competitions on breakfast cereal packets encouraged us to write in saying in no more than 10 words: 'I like Kellogg's Corn Flakes because.... The very act of writing makes us more likely to believe it.

Authority doesn't have to inhibit innovation but it often does. The wrong kind of leadership will lead to what Cialdini calls 'captiainitis, the regrettable tendency of team members to opt out of team responsibilities that are properly theirs' . He calls it captainitis because, he says, 'crew members of multipilot aircraft exhibit a  sometimes deadly passivity when the flightcaptain makes a clearly wrong - headed decision'. This behaviour is not happen in any unique to air travel , but can happen in any workplace where the leader is overbearing. 

At the other end of the scale is the 1980s Memphis design collective, a group of young designers for whom 'the only rule was that there were no rules'. This environment encouraged a free interchange of ideas, which led to more creativity form, function, colour and materials that revolutionised attitudes to furniture design.

Many theorists believe the ideal boss should lead from behind, taking pride in collective accomplishment and giving credit where it is due. Cialdini says: 'Leaders should encourage everyone to contribute and simultaneously assure all concerned that every recommendation  is important to making the right decision and will be given full attention.' The frustrating thing about innovation is that there are many approaches, but no magic formula. However, a manger who wants to create a truly innovative culture can make their job al to easier by recognising these psychological realities.

Questions  

Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.

Write the correct letter in boxes 1 - 13  on your answer sheet.

1.The example of the 'million - dollar quartet' underlines the writer's point about 

a) recognising talent

b) working as a team

c) having a shared objective

d) being an effective leader

2. James Watson suggests that he and Francis Crick won the race to discover the DNA code because they 

a) were conscious of their own limitations

b) brought complementary skills to their partnership

c) were determined to outperform their brighter rivals

d) encouraged each other to realise their joint ambition

3. The writer mentions competitions on breakfast cereal packets as an example of how to 

a) inspire creative thinking

b) generate concise writing 

c) promote loyalty to a group

d) strengthen commitment to an idea

4. In the last paragraph, the writer suggests that it is important for employees to 

a) be aware of their company's goals

b) feel that their contributions are valued

c) have respect for their co-workers achievements

d) understand why certain management decisions are made

Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A- G below.
Write the correct letter, A- G, in boxes 5 - 9 on your answer sheet.

5. Employees whose values match those of their employers are more likely to (G)

6. At times of change, people tend to (E)

7. If people are aware of what they might lose, they will often  ( A)

8. People working under a dominant boss are liable to  (F )

9. Employees working in organisations with few rules are more likely to ( B)

A. take chances
B. share their ideas
C. become competitive
D. get promotion
E. avoid risk
F. ignore their duties
G. remain in their jobs

Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage?

Yes                      If the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO                      It the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN      If it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

10 . The physical surroundings in which a person works play a key role in determining their creativity. (No)
11. Most people have the potential to be creative. (YES)
12. Teams work best when their members are of equally matched intelligence. (NG)
13. It is easier for smaller companies to be innovative. ( NG)
14. A manager's approval of an idea is more persuasive than that of a colleague. (No)

Word Meaning:

a) stimulate = to encourage something to grow

b) collaborative = involving two or more people working together for a special purpose

substantial = large in size, value or importance

nevertheless = despite

pervasive = present or noticeable in every part of a thing or place

rival = person, group

pervasive = present or noticeable in every part of a thing or place

inhibit = to prevent someone from doing something

contribution = something that you contribute or do to help produce

Test-4

Reading Passage - 2

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14 - 26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.

                       Second Nature

Your personality isn't necessarily set in stone. With a little experimentation, people can reshape their temperaments and inject passion, optimism, joy and courage into their lives.

A  

Psychologists have long held that a person's character cannot undergo a transformation in any meaningful way and that the key traits of personality are determined at a very young age. However, researchers have begun looking more closely at ways we can change. Positive psychologists have identified 24 qualities we admire, such as loyalty and kindness and are studying them to find out why they come so naturally to some people. What they're discovering is that many of these qualities amount to habitual behaviour that determines the way we respond to the world. The good news is that all this can be learned.

Some qualities are less challenging to develop than others, optimism being one of them. However, developing qualities requires mastering a range of skills which are diverse and sometimes surprising. For example, to bring more joy and passion into your life, you must be open to experiencing negative emotions. Cultivating such qualities will help you realise your full potential.

B

'The evidence is good that most personality traits can be altered,' says Christopher Peterson, professor of psychology at the University of Michigan, who cites himself as an example. Inherently introverted, he realised early on that as an academic, his reticence would prove disastrous in the lecture hall. So he learned to be more outgoing and to entertain his classes. 'Now my extroverted behaviour is spontaneous,' he says.

C

David fajgenbaum had to make a similar transition. He was preparing for university, when he had an accident that put an end to his sports career. On campus, he quickly found that beyond ordinary counselling, the university had no services for students who were undergoing physical rehabilitation and suffering from depression like him. He therefore launched a support group to help others in similar situations. He took action despite his own pain- a typical response of an optimist.

D

Suzanne Segerstrom, professor of psychology at the University of Kentucky, believes that the key to increasing optimism is through cultivating optimistic behaviour, rather than positive thinking. She recommends you train yourself to pay attention to good fortune by writing down three positive things that come about each day. This will help you convince yourself that favourable outcomes actually happen all the time, making it easier to begin  taking action.

E

You can recongise a person who is passionate about a pursuit by the way they are so strongly involved in it. Tanya Streeter's passion is freediving - the sport of plunging deep into the water without tanks or other breathing equipment.

Beginning in 1998, she set nine world records and can hold her breath for six minutes. The physical stamina required for this sport is intense but the psychological demands are even more overwhelming. Streeter learned to untangle her fears from her judgment of what her body and mind could do. 'In my career as a competitive freediver, there was a limit to what I could do - but it wasn't anywhere near what I thought it was,' she says.

F 

Finding a pursuit that excites you can improve anyone's life. The secret about consuming passions, though, according to psychologist Paul Silvia of the University of North Carolina, is that 'they require discipline, hard work and ability, which is why they are so rewarding.' Psychologist Todd Kashdan has this advice for those people taking up a new passion:' As a newcomer, you also have to tolerate and laugh at your own ignorance. You must be willing to accept the negative feelings that come your way,' he says.

G

In 2004, physician-scientist Mauro Zappaterra began his PhD research at Harvard Medical School. Unfortunately, he was miserable as his research wasn't compatible with his curiosity about healing. He finally took a break and during eight months in Santa Fe, Zappaterra learned about alternative healing techniques not taught at Harvard. When he got back, he switched labs to study how cerebrospinal fluid nourishes the developing nervous system. He also vowed to look for the joy in everything, including failure, as this could help him learn about his research and himself.

One thing that can hold joy back is a person's concentration on avoiding failure rather than their looking forward to doing something well. 'Focusing on being safe might get in the way of your reaching your goals,' explains Kashdan. For example, are you hoping to get through a business lunch without embarrassing yourself, or are you thinking about how fascinating the conversation might be?

H

Usually, we think of courage in physical terms but ordinary life demands something else. For marketing executive Kenneth Pedeleose, it meant speaking out against something he thought was ethically wrong. The new manager was intimidating staff so Pedeleose carefully recorded each instance of bullying and eventually took the evidence to a senior director, knowing his own job security would be threatened. Eventually the manager was the one to go. According to Cynthia Pury, a psychologist at Clemson University, Pedeleose's story proves the point that courage is not motivated by fearlessness, but by moral obligation. Pury also believes that people can acquire courage. Many of her students said that faced with a risky situation, they first tried to calm themselves down, then looked for a way to mitigate the danger, just as Pedeleose did by documenting his allegations.

Over the long term, picking up a new character trait may help you more toward being the person you want to be. And in the short term, the effort itself could be surprisingly rewarding, a kind of internal adventure.

Questions 14 - 18

Complete the summary below.

Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.

Write your answer in boxes 14 - 18 on your answer sheet.

Psychologists have traditionally believed that a personality 14.............................. was impossible and that by a 15..........................................., a person's character tends to be fixed. This is not true according to positive psychologists, who say that our personal qualities can be seen as habitual behaviour. One of the easiest qualities to acquire is 16.............................. However, regardless of the quality, it is necessary to learn a wide variety of different 17.............................. in order for a new quality to develop; for example, a person must understand and feel some 18..................... in order to increase their happiness.

Questions 19 -22

look at the following statements (Questions 19 - 22) and the list of people below.

Match each statement with the correct person, A - G.

Write the correct letter, A - G, in boxes 19 - 22 on your answer sheet.

19. People must accept that they do not know much when first trying something new. E

20. It is important for people to actively notice when good things happen. C

21. Courage can be learned once its origins in a sense of responsibility are understood. G

22. It is possible to overcome shyness when faced with the need to speak in public. A

List of People

A. Christopher Peterson

B. David Fajgenbaum

C. Suzanne Segerstrom

D. Tanya Streeter

E. Todd Kashdan

F. Kenneth Pedeleose

G. Cynthia Pury

Questions 23 - 26

reading Passage 2 has eight sections, A - H.

Which section contains the following information?

Write the correct letter, A - H, in boxes 23 - 26 on your answer sheet.

23. a mention of how rational thinking enabled someone to achieve physical goals   (E)

24. an account of how someone overcame a sad experience   ( C )

25. a description of how someone decided to rethink their academic career path ( G )

26. an example of how someone risked his career out of a sense of duty  ( H )